The ability to change the genotype and phenotype of cells in vitro and in vivo has many applications. For studying physiologic processes, particularly with dedicated cells, there is substantial interest in being able to modify the phenotype to affect a particular process. By enhancing or depressing the amount of a member of the physiological pathway, by inhibiting the activity of a member of the pathway, by providing an allele or mutated analog of the naturally occurring member, one may be able to unravel the role of the various members in the pathway, the order in which the members participate, the presence of alternative pathways and the like. Also, one can use the cells for producing proteins.
Adenovirus does not require cell proliferation for efficient transduction of cells. Adenovirus modified by introduction of a transgene provides for transient expression of proteins. Adenovirus can be rendered incompetent by inactivating one or more essential genes and then be packaged in a helper cell line for use in transfection. Thus, adenovirus affords a convenient vehicle for modifying cellular traits or killing cells, as appropriate.
For many medical applications, there is an interest in being able to specifically modify target cells in vivo or ex vivo. The modification can be associated with random DNA integration, whereby a genetic capability is introduced that complements a genetic defect intracellularly, provides for secretion of a product from the modified cells, which is otherwise undetectably produced or not produced by the host, provide protection from disease, particularly viral disease, and the like. In many situations, in order to be effective, one must have a high efficiency of transfection of the target cells. This is particularly true for in vivo modification. In addition, one would wish to have a high specificity for the target cells, as compared to other cells that may be present ex vivo or in vivo.
Gene therapy involves the transfer of cloned genes to target cells. A variety of viral and non-viral vehicles have been developed to transfer these genes. Of the viruses, retroviruses, herpes virus, adeno-associated virus, Sindbis virus, poxvirus and adenoviruses have been used for gene transfer. These vehicles all have different properties. For example, retroviruses transduce genes in vitro with high efficiency by integrating the transduced gene into the chromosome following division of infected cells. Adeno-associated viruses can stably integrate into and express transduced genes in both dividing and quiescent cells. In contrast, liposomes and adenovirus allow only transient gene expression, and transduce both dividing and quiescent target cells.
Of the viruses, adenoviruses are among the most easily produced and purified, whereas retroviruses are unstable, difficult to produce and impossible to purify. Both classes of virus transduce cells with high efficiency. Liposomes hold the promise of allowing repeat doses of genes for, unlike viruses, they are not immunogenic. However, liposomes completed with DNA are difficult to produce in commercial quantities, and are inefficient gene transfer vehicles, most often transducing fewer than one percent of target cells.
Publications describing various aspects of adenovirus biology and/or techniques relating to adenovirus include the following. Graham and Van de Eb (1973) Virology 52:456-467; Takiff et al. (1981) Lancet ii:832-834; Berkner and Sharp (1983) Nucleic Acid Research 6003-6020; Graham (1984) EMBO J 3:2917-2922; Bett et al. (1993) J. Virology 67:5911-5921; and Bett et al. (1994) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91:8802-8806 describe adenoviruses that have been genetically modified to produce replication-defective gene transfer vehicles. In these vehicles, the early adenovirus gene products EIA and EIB are deleted and provided in trans by the packaging cell line 293 developed by Frank Graham (Graham et al. (1987) J. Gen. Birol. 36:59-72 and Graham (1977) J. Genetic Virology 68:937-940). The gene to be transduced is commonly inserted into adenovirus in the deleted EIA and EIB region of the virus genome Bett et al. (1994), supra. Adenovirus vectors as vehicles for efficient transduction of genes have been described by Stratford-Perricaudet (1990) Human Gene Therapy 1:2-256; Rosenfeld (1991) Science 252:431-434; Wang et al. (1991) Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 309:61-66; Jaffe et al. (1992) Nat Gent. 1:372-378; Quantin et al. (1992) Proc Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:2581-2584; Rosenfeld et al. (1992) Cell 68:143-155; Stratford-Perricaudet et al. (1992) J. Clin. Invest. 90:626-630; Le Gal La Salle et al. (1993) Science 259:988-990; Mastrangeli et al. (1993) J. Clin. Invest. 91:225-234; Ragot et al. (1993) Nature 361:647-650; Hayaski et al. (1994) J. Biol. Chem. 269:23872-23875.
There are two major divisions of gene therapy protocols: in vivo and ex vivo. In vivo refers to administration of the therapeutic directly to the patient, usually by inhalation or injection, although oral administration has been suggested in some instances. Ex vivo gene therapy refers to the process of removing cells from a patient, for example in a biopsy, placing the cells into tissue culture, transferring genes to the cells in tissue culture, characterizing the newly genetically engineered cells, and finally returning the cells to the patient by intravenous infusion. Therapeutically, retroviruses are most often used for ex vivo transfer, whereas adenoviruses and liposomes are most often used for in vivo gene transfer.
In the treatment of cancer by replication-defective adenoviruses, the host immune response limits the duration of repeat doses of the therapeutic at two levels. First, the adenovirus delivery vehicle itself is immunogenic. Second, late virus genes are frequently expressed in transduced cells, eliciting cellular immunity. Thus, the ability to repeatedly administer cytokines, tumor suppressor genes, ribozymes or suicide genes is limited by the transient nature of gene expression, and the immunogenicity of both the gene transfer vehicle and the viral gene products of the transfer vehicle.
There is, therefore, substantial interest in being able to develop viral vectors which substantially reduce the present limitations and restrictions on the use of such vectors in vivo.